Water is a finite resource that plays an irreplaceable role in sustaining life and supporting agricultural production. Water scarcity is a critical challenge affecting regions around the world, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas, with profound implications for global food security and the economic and environmental sustainability of human activities. In fact, water scarcity affects about two-thirds of the world’s population, with about four billion people facing severe water shortages for at least one month each year, particularly in India and China, and half a billion people facing severe water scarcity throughout the year (Mekonnen and Hoekstra, 2016). This situation is exacerbated by increased demand for water due to climate change and population growth (Gosling and Arnell, 2016), with the global population projected to reach nearly 10 billion by 2050, up from 8 billion in 2022 (United Nations, 2022). It is predicted that more than 2 billion urban dwellers could face water scarcity by 2050, with India facing the most severe water-scarce urban population growth.
Agriculture is a major consumer of freshwater, accounting for approximately 70 % of global freshwater withdrawals (Ridoutt et al., 2021). Population demand for water-intensive crops continues to grow, increasing pressure on limited water resources (Hachimi et al., 2023, Sarker et al., 2019a). Water scarcity, coupled with climate change, poses a significant threat to food production, with increasing competition for water between agriculture and other sectors (Mancosu et al., 2015). Inefficient water use, particularly in agriculture, contributes to water scarcity. Significant amounts of water are lost through poor irrigation practices, highlighting the need for improved water management (Fereres and Soriano, 2007). This is a global problem that affects both developed and underdeveloped countries. In countries such as Pakistan, for example, inefficient irrigation systems exacerbate water losses, further threatening food security (Zhang et al., 2021). Implementing advanced technologies and improving water use efficiency are critical to mitigating water scarcity.
Water quality issues, such as pollution and salinity, exacerbate water scarcity problems. Polluted return flows from excessive water withdrawals are degrading water quality, particularly in densely populated regions such as eastern China and India (van Vliet et al., 2021). In addition, over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation is lowering water tables and increasing soil salinity, reducing crop yields and affecting rural livelihoods (Sun et al., 2015). Addressing water quality challenges is critical to ensuring sustainable water supplies and maintaining ecosystem health (Liu et al., 2016). Sustainable water management strategies are needed to address these challenges and secure future food supplies.
Agriculture 4.0, or digital agriculture, is a transformative approach that integrates digital technology into agricultural practices. This ongoing revolution in agriculture leverages Remote Sensing, the Internet of Things, Big Data, Artificial Intelligence and Robotics, among other technologies, to improve the efficiency, productivity and sustainability of agriculture and agri-food businesses (Hassoun et al., 2023, Latino et al., 2022, Parra-López et al., 2024b). Within the Agriculture 4.0 paradigm – characterised by data-driven, connected and automated processes – digital technologies have emerged as key enablers of ‘smart’ water management. These technologies align with Agriculture 4.0 principles through the use of real-time data flows, predictive analytics, and automation (Parra-López et al., 2024b, Wolfert et al., 2017). As an extension, the emerging concept of Agriculture 5.0 encourages the integration of these digital solutions with human-centred design, sustainability, and advanced robotics to further optimise efficiency while protecting the environment.
Digital technologies are playing an increasingly central role in the management and use of water in agriculture, which is crucial given the sector’s significant water consumption. The use of digital solutions facilitates more precise agricultural practices, optimising inputs and striking a balance between minimising environmental impacts and maximising agricultural output (Wolfert et al., 2017). By using real-time data from sensors and satellite imagery, farmers can make informed decisions that lead to more efficient resource use and improved crop management (Liakos et al., 2018). For example, Remote Sensing technologies and drones provide detailed data on crop health and water requirements, facilitating targeted interventions to prevent both under- and over-irrigation (Marques et al., 2024, Messina and Modica, 2022, Sishodia et al., 2020). These technological advances are making a significant contribution to addressing the challenges of water scarcity and ensuring the sustainable use of water resources in agriculture.
Despite a considerable body of research on digital technologies for agricultural water use and management, there are notable gaps in the existing literature that warrant further investigation. Much of the current research tends to focus on specific technologies such as remote sensing (e.g. Karthikeyan et al., 2020) or machine learning (e.g. Haggerty et al., 2023), within specific local or regional contexts, limiting the broader applicability of the findings. Furthermore, while some review studies have examined a range of digital technologies, they often focus on specific agricultural practices, such as irrigation (Bounajra et al., 2024), or specific challenges, such as inefficient water use and targeted strategies to address them (Preite et al., 2023). These limitations highlight the need for more comprehensive, holistic and up-to-date research approaches that include a wide range of digital technologies and their recent applications in different agricultural practices. Such studies should address the multiple challenges related to water use and management from a global perspective, considering different strategies. Furthermore, it is crucial to explore both the opportunities and barriers to the adoption of these technologies in order to advance the discourse and research in this area.
In this context, the paper has four main objectives: 1) provide a comprehensive analysis of current key water-related challenges and strategies for water use and management; 2) examine recent applications of digital technologies related to agricultural water use and management in different contexts; 3) examine potential barriers and challenges to the widespread adoption of these technologies; 4) propose future research directions and actions to support the further integration of digital technologies in agriculture. By addressing these objectives, this study aims to contribute to a more nuanced and holistic understanding of the role of digital technologies in agricultural water use and management, thereby informing future research, policy and practice in this critical area. It aims to contribute to harnessing the potential of digital technologies to improve agricultural practices, increase water use efficiency and address global challenges related to water scarcity and management in the context of climate change.
